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A matrix is a rectangular array, which is arranged as horizontal row and vertical column elements and is shown in brackets. Matrices are shown with bold capital letters. The dimension of a matrix with r rows and c columns is called r by c, and usually written as r x c.
A matrix is called real-valued, if all the elements of the matrix are real valued numbers or functions. If at least one element of a matrix is a complex number or a complex-valued function, the matrix is called complex valued. If all the members of a matrix are numbers, the matrix is refered as a constant matrix.
A matrix with one row or column is called as vector. Vectors are usually shown as a column matrix as:
which are composed of n real elements such that . The term represents n-dimensional space, and thus, A represents a point in this space. A vector with one row is referred to as row vector, and a vector with one column is referred to as column vector.
In order to add two matrices, their dimensions should also be equal and is defined as:
Addition of matrices has associative and commutative properties:
The difference of two matrices is defined similarly as:
The multiplication of a matrix with a scalar value k is obtained by multiplying every element of the matrix with the scalar as:
The elements of matrix C, which is the product of matrix with dimension r x p and matrix with dimension p x c is calculated as:
Matrix product is associative, distributive over addition and subtraction, but not commutative:
and also
If n is a positive integer and A is a square matrix than the nthpower of A is calculated by multiplying itself n times as
Thus, it is obvious that
A matrix, whose number of rows and columns are equal, is called a square matrix. The general form of a square matrix can be written as
The diagonal elements of this matrix are a11, a22, a33...ann. The matrix whose elements other than the diagonal elements, are zero, is called as a diagonal matrix as:
An identity matrix is a diagonal matrix whose diagonal elements is one and represented by I.
The identity matrix has the following property:
The transpose of a matrix is shown as AT and is simply obtained by writing the rows of A one by one as columns of AT. If the dimension of the matrix A is r x c, the dimension of its transpose is c x r.
A square matrix is said to be orthonormal if
The rank of a matrix is the number of linearly independent rows (or columns). The trace of a square matrix is the sum of its diagonal elements
The inverse of a matrix is depicted by and defined such that
The inverse of a matrix exists if and only if A is non-singular.
A matrix is said to be singular if its inverse does not exist, otherwise non-singular. The rank of a non-singular matrix equals the number of rows (or columns).A non-singular matrix has a non-zero determinant. If A is non-singular, than
Two non-singular matrices A and B are:
If A is non-singular than is also non-singular and
The pseudo-inverse matrix is typically used whenever does not exist (because A is not square or A is singular):
assuming that and is non-singular. Also in general it can be stated that .
The determinant of a square matrix is represented as det A, or as |A|, and is a scalar value and calculated for 2 × 2 matrices as:
For n>2, the determinant of n × n matrices is calculated by reducing the matrix and using minors as follows. The minor Mij of a matrix An×n is the determinant of n-1 × n-1 sub-matrix which is formed by removing the ith row and jth column from A. Thus the determinant of A has the form:
Here is an example:
The determinant of can be opened through first row or first column such as
or
Some properties of determinants can be states as follows. For two square matrices An×n and Bn×n which are equally dimensioned
For a square matrix An×n
If the inverse of A exists than
For a square matrix An×n and a column vector X, if there exists a scalar value l such that
the vector X is called the eigen-vector of matrix A, and scalar l is called the corresponding eigen-value. Here is an example:
For
can be provided. Therefore, the vector , is the eigen-vector, corresponding to eigen-value , of A.
Eigen values can be computed as follows:
For the non-trivial solution:
Cayley-Hamilton theorem states that each square matrix provides its own eigen-equation (characterisic equation) such that if
than
Follow the example
which is the characterisic equation. Thus, it can be shown that matrix A provides Cayley-Hamilton theorem
Eigen-values and eigen-vectors have the following properties. If A is non-singular, all eigen-values of A are non-zero. If A is real and symmetric, all eigrn-values are real and the eigen-vectors associated with distinct eigen-values are orthogonal. If A is positive definite, than all the eigen-values are positive. In addition, the eigen-values of a matrix and its transpose are equal.
The magnitude (Euclidean norm) of any vector is represented by and given as
The inner product (dot product) of two vectors A and B, with equal dimensions, is calculated by mutually multiplying the elements, and then by adding as:
and the result is a scalar.
The inner product given in eq. 2.38 can also be calculated as
where is the angle between two vectors.
Two vectors A and B are said to be orthogonal if their inner product is equal to zero:
and two vectors are said to be orthonormal if they are orthogonal and each of them are unit vectors such that:
The orthogonal (parallel) projection of vector A onto vector B is shown in Figure 2.1 and calculated as
where is a unit vector such that and is in the same direction with .
Figure 2.1: The projection of vector A onto vector B.
A common linear equation system is a group of equations such that :
The coefficients aij (i=1,2,...,m; j=1,2,...,n) and bi (i=1,2,...,m) are known scalars, and xj (j=1,2,...,m) are unknown variables. This system is equavalent of the following matrix system:
where
The matrix A is called coefficients-matrix since it includes all the coefficients of the system. The ith row (i=1,2...m) of A corresponds to the ith equation of system given in eq.2.43. Notice that the dimensionality of the two spaces does not need to be the same. For pattern recognition we typically have m < n which means that we project onto a lower-dimensionality space.
A n-dimensional set of vectors whose individual elements are in equal dimensions, {V1, V2, …, Vn}are said to be linearly dependent if there exists a set of coefficients a1, a2, …, an (at least one different than zero) which provides
Alternatively, a set of vectors V1, V2, …, Vn are said to be linearly independent if
A linear transformation represented by a square matrix A is said to be orthonormal when
which implies that
An orthonormal matrix can be thought of as a rotation of the reference frame. An orthonormal transformation has the property of preserving the magnitude of the vectors as:
The row vectors of an orthonormal transformation form a set of orthonormal basis vectors:
The n-dimensional space in which all the n-dimensional vectors reside is called a vector space. A set of vectors {u1, u2, ... un} is said to form a basis for a vector space if any arbitrary vector V can be represented by a linear combination of the {u1, u2, ... un}.
The coefficients {a1, a2, ... an} are called the components of vector V with respect to the basis vectors {u1, u2, ... un}. In order to form a basis, it is necessary and sufficient that the basis vectors {u1, u2, ... un} be linearly independent.
Figure 2.2: Representation of a vector using basis vectors and coefficients in vector space.
A set of vectors such as basis vectors {u1, u2, ... un} is said to orthogonal if each of the vectors within the set are orthogonal to each of the remaining vectors within the set. That is:
where n is number of vectors in the set. Such a set is linearly independent if all the vectors are non- zero.
A set of vectors such as basis vectors {u1, u2, ... un} is said to orthonormal if the set is orthogonal and all of the vectors within the vectors are unit vectors.
Thus
The 2D and 3D Cartesian coordinate systems are orthonormal, as their basis vectors orthogonal and each of them are unit vectors.
Related with every finite linearly independent set of vectors such as {X1, X2, ... Xn}, an orthogonal set of vectors {Q1, Q2, ... Qn}whose individual elements are non-zero, exists, such that each vector Qj (j=1,2...n), is a linear combination of vectors X1 through X j-1. The algorithm that composes Qj vectors is known as Gram-Schmidt orthogonalization procedure. Since this method is very sensitive to rounding errors, it can generate wrong results under finite digit arithmetics. A uniform variation of Gram-Schmidt orthogonalization procedure can generate the same vectors when rounding does not applied. The second method is recursive and transforms the linearly independent set of vectors {X1, X2, ... Xn} into orthonormal set of vectors {Q1, Q2, ... Qn} such that every Qj (j=1,2...n), is a linear combination of vectors X1 through X j-1. The kth recurrence of the algorithm is as follows:
The distance between two points in a vector space is defined as the magnitude of the vector difference between the points (Figure 2.3). That is
This distance is known as Euclidean distance.
Figure 2.3: Euclidean distance between two vectors.
The transition from mathematics to code or vice versa can be made with the aid of a few rules in MATLAB. It will be useful to list them here for future reference. To change from mathematics notation to MATLAB notation, the user needs to:
•Change superscripts to cell array indices:
•Change subscripts to parentheses indices: )
•Change parentheses indices to a second cell array index:
•Change mathematics operators to MATLAB operators and toolbox functions:
In MATLAB, a matrix is a rectangular array of numbers. When they are taken away from the world of linear algebra, matrices become two-dimensional numeric arrays.
Arrays are constructed by declaring its elements within brackets “[]” separating each element with a space or a comma.
An array can simply be constructed by using colon operator“:”. The syntax fro this command is as (begining value : increment : ending value). Here are examples of its variations.
The linspace command generates linearly spaced vectors. It is similar to the colon operator ":", but gives direct control over the number of points. The syntax is as
y = linspace(a,b) generates a row vector y of 100 points linearly spaced between and including a and b.
y = linspace(a,b,n) generates a row vector y of n points linearly spaced between and including a and b.
Generally its syntax can be rewritten as:
linspace(beginning value, ending value, number of elements to be generated)
The spacing between elements of the array generated by the linspace command is calculated as:
The logspace command generates logarithmically spaced vectors. It is especially useful for creating frequency vectors, it is a logarithmic equivalent of linspace and the colon operator ":". All the arguments to logspace command must be scalars. The syntax is as
y = logspace(a,b) generates a row vector y of 50 logarithmically spaced points between decades and 10b.
y = logspace(a,b,n) generates n points between decades and .
y = logspace(a,pi) generates the points between and , which is useful for digital signal processing where frequencies over this interval go around the unit circle.
Generally its syntax can be rewritten similar to linspace command as:
The spacing between elements of the array generated by the logspace command is calculated as:
In MATLAB, a matrix is a rectangular array of numbers. When they are taken away from the world of linear algebra, matrices become two-dimensional numeric arrays. The semicolon operator “;”, when used inside brackets, ends rows. Thus, an array (vector or matrix) can be created using semicolon operator as follows:
A matrix and a row vector is defined as:
Concatenation is the process of joining small arrays/matrices to make bigger ones. In fact, we made our first matrix by concatenating its individual elements. The pair of square brackets, [], is the concatenation operator.
The colon operator “:” is used for creating vectors, and array subscripting and it uses the rules given in Table 2.1 to create regularly spaced vectors.
Table 2.1: The rules for colon operator.
Table 2.2 gives the definitions that govern the use of the colon to pick out selected rows, columns, and elements of vectors, matrices, and higher-dimensional arrays.
Table 2.2: The definitions for governing the colon operator “ : ”.
The examples of the definitions given in Table 2.2 are as follows.
Arithmetic operations on arrays are done element-by-element. This means that addition and subtraction are the same for arrays and matrices, but that multiplicative operations are different.
The matrix operations discussed above can be implemented with MATLAB. The operators for matrix and array manipulation of MATLAB are given in Table 2.3. Their usage and basic operations in MATLAB will be examined with source code below.
Table 2.3: Matrix operators used in MATLAB. .
A matrix is defined as:
A vector and its transpose:
Basic matrix operations:
The power of a matrix is calculated as:
Implementations of equations 2.9 through 2.13 are depicted below.
The rank function provides an estimate of the number of linearly independent rows or columns of a matrix. There are a number of ways to compute the rank of a matrix. MATLAB uses the method based on the singular value decomposition (SVD). The SVD algorithm is the most time consuming, but also the most reliable.
k = rank(A) returns the number of singular values of A that are larger than the default tolerance, max(size(A))*norm(A)*eps.
k = rank(A,tol) returns the number of singular values of A that are larger than tol.
The trace of a matrix, given by eq. 2.21, is not provided directly. It is calculated as a combination of functions diag and sum as
sum(diag(X)) is the trace of X.
The inverse of A, is denoted by A-1, and is computed by the function inv as follows.
The determinant of a matrix is computed by the function det as follows.
If the determinant of a particular matrix happens to be zero, it indicates that the matrix is singular. Since the matrix is singular, it does not have an inverse. When we tried to compute the inverse we got a warning message.
Since rectangular matrices do not have inverses or determinants the pseudoinverse of a matrix is computed using the function pinv as follows.
The eigen-values and eigen-vectors are computed using the eig function as follows.
d = eig(A) returns a vector of the eigenvalues of matrix A.
d = eig(A,B) returns a vector containing the generalized eigenvalues, if A and B are square matrices.
[V,D] = eig(A) produces matrices of eigenvalues (D) and eigenvectors (V) of matrix A, so that A*V = V*D. Matrix D is the canonical form of A - a diagonal matrix with A's eigenvalues on the main diagonal. Matrix V is the modal matrix--its columns are the eigenvectors of A. For eig(A), the eigenvectors are scaled so that the norm of each is 1.0. Use [W,D] = eig(A.'); W = W.' to compute the left eigenvectors, which satisfy W*A = D*W.
[V,D] = eig(A,B) produces a diagonal matrix D of generalized eigenvalues and a full matrix V whose columns are the corresponding eigenvectors so that A*V = B*V*D.
[V,D] = eig(A,B,flag) specifies the algorithm used to compute eigenvalues and eigenvectors. Flag can be: ‘chol’ Computes the generalized eigenvalues of A and B using the Cholesky factorization of B. This is the default for symmetric (Hermitian) A and symmetric (Hermitian) positive definite B. ‘qz’ ignores the symmetry, if any, and uses the QZ algorithm as it would for nonsymmetric (non-Hermitian) A and B.
The eigenvalue problem is to determine the nontrivial solutions of the equation where A is an n-by-n matrix, x is a length n column vector, and is a scalar. The n values of that satisfy the equation are the eigenvalues, and the corresponding values of x are the right eigenvectors. In MATLAB, the function eig solves for the eigenvalues, and optionally the eigenvectors x. The generalized eigenvalue problem is to determine the nontrivial solutions of the equation where both A and B are n-by-n matrices and is a scalar. The values of that satisfy the equation are the generalized eigenvalues and the corresponding values of x are the generalized right eigenvectors. If B is nonsingular, the problem could be solved by reducing it to a standard eigenvalue problem. Because B can be singular, an alternative algorithm, called the QZ method, is necessary. When a matrix has no repeated eigenvalues, the eigenvectors are always independent and the eigenvector matrix V diagonalizes the original matrix A if applied as a similarity transformation. However, if a matrix has repeated eigenvalues, it is not similar to a diagonal matrix unless it has a full (independent) set of eigenvectors. If the eigenvectors are not independent then the original matrix is said to be defective. Even if a matrix is defective, the solution from eig satisfies A*X = X*D.:
The norm of a matrix is a scalar that gives some measure of the magnitude of the elements of the matrix. The norm function calculates several different types of matrix norms. The one which we deal with is as follows.
n = norm(A) returns the largest singular value of A, max(svd(A))
The cross product is computed using the function dot as follows.
C = cross(A,B) returns the cross product of the vectors A and B. That is, C = A ´ B. A and B must be 3-element vectors. If A and B are multidimensional arrays, cross returns the cross product of A and B along the first dimension of length 3.
C = cross(A,B,dim) where A and B are multidimensional arrays, returns the cross product of A and B in dimension dim . A and B must have the same size, and both size(A,dim) and size(B,dim) must be 3.
The dot product is computed using the function dot as follows.
The eye function is used to generate an Identity matrix as follows.
Y = eye(n) returns the n-by-n identity matrix.
Y = eye(m,n) or eye([m n]) returns an m-by-n matrix with 1's on the diagonal and 0's elsewhere.
Y = eye(size(A)) returns an identity matrix the same size as A
The zeros function creates an array of all zeros as follows.
B = zeros(n) returns an n-by-n matrix of zeros. An error message appears if n is not a scalar.
B = zeros(size(A)) returns an array the same size as A consisting of all zeros.
B = zeros(m,n) or B = zeros([m n]) returns an m-by-n matrix of zeros.
B = zeros(d1,d2,d3...) or B = zeros([d1 d2 d3...]) returns an array of zeros with dimensions d1-by-d2-by-d3-by-... .
The ones function creates an array of all ones as follows.
Y = ones(n) returns an n-by-n matrix of 1s. An error message appears if n is not a scalar.
Y = ones(size(A)) returns an array the same size as A consisting of all 1s.
Y = ones(m,n) or Y = ones([m n]) returns an m-by-n matrix of 1s.
Y = ones(d1,d2,d3...) or Y = ones([d1 d2 d3...]) returns an array of 1s with dimensions d1-by-d2-by-d3-by-... .
The size of an array or matrix can be learned by using the size function such that:
d = size(X) returns the sizes of each dimension of array X in a vector d with ndims(X) elements.
[r,c] = size(X) returns the size of matrix X in variables r and c.
m = size(X,dim) returns the size of the dimension of X specified by scalar dim.
[d1,d2,d3,...,dn] = size(X) returns the sizes of the various dimensions of array X in separate variables.
The statement length(X) returns the longest dimension of the matrix defined by its parameter, and is equivalent to max(size(X)) for nonempty arrays and 0 for empty arrays. If X is a vector, the returned value is the same as its length.
REFERENCES
[1] Bronson R., (1989) Matrix Operations Theory, and Practice, Schaum’s Outline Series, McGraw-Hill Companies Inc.
[2] Adams R. A., (2003) Calculus: A Complete Course, (5th Ed.), Toronto: Pearson Education, Canada.
[3] Gutierrez-Osuna R., Introduction to Pattern Analysis, Course Notes, Department of Computer Science, A&M University, (http://research.cs.tamu.edu/prism/lectures/pr/pr_l1.pdf ), Texas
[4] Arifoğlu, U., and Kubat C., (2003). MATLAB ve Mühendislik Uygulamaları.İstanbul: ALFA Basım Yayım Dağıtım Ltd. Şti.
[5] Demuth H., and Beale M. (2003). Neural Network Toolbox For Use With MATLAB, User’s Guide, Mathworks Inc., version 4.0
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